370-389 Ostrogoths, Visigoths and Huns

In this 20 year period the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian died in 375 and was succeeded by his son Gratian (pictured) in the West and his younger brother Valens in the East.

Valentinian II ruled over Italy, Africa and Illyricum.

In 376 the Goths of the Danube were divided into two groups known as the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths. The Huns, a powerful tribe from central Asia, were pushing into southern Russia and destroyed the kingdom of the Ostrogoths. Terrified by the Huns, the Visigoths petitioned Valens to be allowed to cross the Danube and settle in Roman territory.

In return for troops, Valens agreed and had them ferried across the Danube to settle in Thrace, where a revolt took place in 377. In 378 Valens asked for assistance from 19 year old Gratian, who sent troops, but Valens became impatient and attacked the German Goths (cavalry men) and was defeated and killed.

Gration appointed Theodosius (a Spaniard) as commander in Thrace, headquarters in Thessalonica, and in 379 appointed him emperor of Egypt, the East and the Balkans where the Goth troubles persisted.

In 382, Theodosius entered into a treaty with the Goths, allowing them to settle in the Balkans, as a self-governing federate, but providing troops for the Roman army ( under Goth command).

At first, Gratian was tolerant of religious differences, but under the influence of the aristocratic Bishop of Milan, Ambrose, (Milan having long been the imperial seat of Rome) outlawed "heretical" assemblies, and abolished the privileges of the pagan priesthoods in Rome.

Theodosius - an aggressive catholic - issued a decree in 380 advising everyone to become catholic (ie to accept the Nicene Creed) calling those who did not "demented and crazed" warranting not only God's punishment but his as well and deposed the Arian bishop of Constantinople.

In 381 he ordered that all churches should be turned over to catholic bishops, and like Gratian he banned all non-catholic assemblies issuing 18 edicts against various dissenting christian sects.

Theodosius was easier than Gratian on the Pagans. In 381 blood sacrifice was banned, but other forms of Pagan worship were allowed. However, no action was taken against "spontaneous" local acts destroying Pagan temples and in this way Paganism was virtually wiped out.

In 383, Magnus Maximus, a Spanish aristocratic miliary commander like Theodosius, proclaimed himself emperor in Britain and invaded Gaul. Gratian went to meet the usurper, but was abandoned by his troops, turned over to Maximus and executed by him.

Maximus sent envoys to Valentian II and Theodosius for recognition, but they stalled - Theodosius to work out a treaty in 387 with Persia (splitting up Armenia) before he could deal with Maximus in the west.

Maximus was a fervent Catholic, having Orthodox Christians executed in Spain - an action deplored by some Spanish Bishops - but such violence was the extreme logical result of the state becoming the defender of Catholic dogma.

In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, forcing Valentian II to flee to Thessalonica, and finally Theodosius came to Italy, did battle with Maximus, defeated him and had him executed.

While in Italy, Theodosius presented his 5 year old son Honorius to the Roman Senators as a future ruler of the west (having already secured the succession of his older son, Arcadius, as ruler of the east) and fell under the influence of Ambrose, as Gratian before him had.

In 388 a bishop in the Euphrates area, against Roman law, ordered the destruction of a synagogue. Theodosius ordered the bishop to pay for its rebuilding, Ambrose was outraged, and Theodosius deferred.

350-369 Julian Reverts Empire to Paganism & Persia Invades

In this 20 year period the Western Emperor Constans was murdered and his place usurped by Magnentius who was killed in battle in 353 by the Eastern Emperor Constantius II (pictured).

The Eastern Emperor Constantius II died in 361 leaving the entire empire to his Pagan cousin Julian who died in battle in 364 and was replaced by Jovian who met a similar fate in same year and was replaced by Valentinian.

The Western Emperor Constans supported the Nicene Creed, but Constantius II - the Eastern Emperor, with his court in Constantinople - favored the newly respectable creed of Arianism and this split in Christianity led to the murder of Constans in Gaul in 350 and his replacement with a German officer, Magnentius from the elite troops.

This usurper was challenged by Vetranio, the local commander in Illyricum, and Constantius II left Constantinople to intervene, persuaded Vetranio to abdicate but Magnentius had to be fought in battle and he was eventually defeated in 353, making Constantius II the sole emperor.

Returning to the East in 355, Constantius turned his attention to the only living male descendant of his father's extended family - the young Julian who was 5 at the time of the massacre of 337. He promoted the young Julian to the command of Gaul, where he became a successful general and when Constantius ordered him to send the best of his troops to the East to fight the Persians, Julian took advantage of the soldiers' reluctance to leave him and accepted their proclamation of him as Emperor in 360.

When Constantius heard this, the Persian threat was so great that he could do nothing - and when Julian boldly invaded Constantius' territory in 361 the old man led his troops to meet his enemy but died on the way - leaving Julian the sole Emperor.

The Arian doctrine supported by Constantius II was detested in the West and in 359 he had forced the Italian bishops to adopt the Arian creed. So, when Julian came to power and reverted the Empire to the old Pagan ways there was a lot of confusion among the Christians - but a great deal of relief among those who had converted without believing.

Religious affairs were interrupted by a Persian Invasion, necessitating Julian in 363 to go to war. He split his army, sending half down the Tigris while he took the traditional route along the Euphrates - expecting to meet up at Ctesiphon. Julian reached his destination, defeated the Persians, then burnt his fleet to increase mobility but the other half of his army failed to arrive leaving him stranded - a situation that the straggling Persians took advantage of and finally he was wounded and died of blood loss.

The new Emperor, Jovian, a Christian, was forced to abide by humiliating terms in order to extricate the Roman army in Persian territory (returning to the Persians the five provinces across the Tigris that Galerius had won in 298).

Jovian died mysteriously in 364 and was replaced by Valentinian, a devout Christian with a bad temper and a hatred of the educated, who had risen through the ranks. He was required to appoint a colleague, and he chose his brother Valens to rule the East.

In 367 Emperor Valentinian sent general Theodosius to restore order in the north of England and in the same year he fell ill and proclaimed his 8 year old son, Gratian, as emperor.

310-329 Eastern Emperors Gain Power Over Rome

This 20 year period  started with the Carnuntum Conference convened by the Eastern Roman Emperor Galerius pictured to restore order among those contending to be the western emperor. This conference was attended by Diocletian.

Maximian -- the Western emperor -- was forced to abdicate, and his son, Maxentius, was denied any status. A new emperor for the west was appointed - Licinius, a general - and Constantine remained as his co-ruler.

Maximian still yearned for power and was forced to commit suicide after an attempt to overthrow his son-in-law Constantine in 310.

To complicate matters, Galerius' co-ruler, Maximinus, resented the elevation of Licinius and to keep peace, Galerius made him his co-emperor.

In 311 Galerius died and Maximinus, implacably against the Christians, took over.

To secure his position, Constantine offered the marriage of his sister, Constantia, to Licinius, Emperor of the West.

Maximinus, Emperor of the East, promised Maxentius, living in Rome, the emperorship of the west, causing Constantine to invade Italy in 312. At the Battle of the Mulvian Bridge outside Rome Maxentius met Constantine (who used a Christian symbol on his shield) and Maxentius was defeated.

In the following year 313, while Licinius was in Rome marrying Constantine's sister, Maximinus marched across Asia Minor, taking Byzantium and crossed into Europe.

The armies of the east and west met, Maximinus fled, abandoning his army, and Licinius pursued him to Tarsus in Asia Minor, besieged him and finally he committed suicide.

Licinius kept his promise to Constantine about restoring church property taken by Maximinus, and was ruthless in eradicating all members - including women and children - of the families involved in persecuting Christians (far more ruthless than the previous emperors had been against members of the sect).

Amazingly, after Licinius had got rid of all of Constantine's rivals, and done much of his dirty work for him, Constantine then feared Licinius in his position as new Emperor of the East - with a male heir, Constantine's own nephew - and declared war on him in 316, got as far as Byzantium but was outsmarted by Licinius and retreated.

Previously sympathetic to Christians, Licinius now saw them as treacherous and protected himself by dismissing them from his service.

By 321 the empire was split, and wanting total control Constantine amassed a huge force and invaded Licinius's territory northwest of Thessalonica, northern Greece, and in 324 the two armies did battle. Licinius fell back and was finally defeated near Chalcedon. Licinius's life was spared when his wife (Constantine's sister) and the Bishop of Nicomedia interceded.

With Licinius's abdication, Constantine became the first emperor in 40 years to rule the empire on his own and immediately became embroiled in complicated Christian theological disputes, necessitating calling a Church Council in 325, held in Nicaea, attended by 300 bishops mainly from the east, though largely a Greek affair - its decisions were to be binding in the west as well and became known as the Nicene Creed.

As well as setting a fixed date for Easter, this council also eradicated Jewish customs from the service.