BC410-391 Carthage Conquests

In the twenty years from 410-391 BC a strengthened Carthage in North Africa sponsored Himilco the Navigator's exploration of Europe's Atlantic coast (pictured) to found new colonies.

Were it not for plague in 396 BC, Carthage would have emerged victorious in the Mediterranean, winning Sicily from the Greeks and becoming more a superpower than it was already.

By 410 BC, a strengthened Carthage had conquered Tunisia, founded new colonies in North Africa, and sponsored Mago Barca's journey across the Sahara Desert, Hanno the Navigator's journey down the African coast, and Himilco the Navigator's exploration of Europe's Atlantic coast. Sicily was next.

In 409 BC, Hannibal Mago set out for Sicily and was successful in capturing some cities before returning triumphantly to Carthage with the spoils of war. Syracuse -- the primary target -- remained untouched and in 405 BC, Hannibal Mago led a second expedition to Sicily, this time to claim the whole island.

During the siege of Agrigentum -- against the army of Dionysius, the new tyrant of Syracuse -- the Carthaginian forces were ravaged by plague. Hannibal Mago died of plague, and his successor, Himilco, finally had to sue for peace before returning to Carthage.

In 398 BC, Dionysius broke the peace treaty, striking at a Carthaginian stronghold, Motya. Himilco responded by leading an expedition which not only reclaimed Motya, but also captured Messina. Finally, he laid siege to Syracuse itself, but by 396 BC plague had again ravaged the Carthaginian forces, and they collapsed.

In Greece, Lysander was in charge of the Spartan fleet in the Aegean, based at Ephesus (407 BC) when Alcibiades rejoined the Athenian side towards the end of the Peloponnesian War. In his first year as admiral (406 BC) he won a sea battle at Notium and obtained support for the Spartan cause from Cyrus the Younger, Persian satrap and son of Darius II.

Lysander was then victorious against the Athenians at Aegospotami in 405 BC, and in the following year, he took Athens itself, bringing the Peloponnesian War to an end.

When Athens succumbed after to Lysander's siege, he installed a government of thirty, later known as the Thirty Tyrants (404 BC). By promoting the interests of his friends and displaying vindictiveness against those who displeased him, Lysander became unpopular throughout Greece. A democratic revolt led by Thrasybulus in 403 brought Lysander back to Athens to support the Thirty Tyrants, but the Spartan Kings called him back -- and he lost face.

On the death of King Agis of Sparta, Lysander was instrumental in promoting Agesilaus II as king in 399 BC, but after starting a joint expedition to attack Persia the new king spurned him. Lysander returned to Sparta in 396 BC to face another challenge.

After the end of the Peloponnesian War, Corinth and Thebes, which were former allies with Sparta in the Peloponnesian League, had grown dissatisfied with the hegemony of Sparta and started the Corinthian War (395-387 BC) against it.

At the beginning of the Corinthian War Lysander led an army of allies into Boeotia from Phocis and was killed in 395 BC when his troops were surprised by a Theban ambush at Haliartus.

Socrates also died in 399 BC.

410-429 Britain Abandoned, Rhineland Puppet Emperor

In the year after Rome was sacked by Alaric (pictured) -- a Roman general and king of the federate Visigoth nation -- in revenge for broken promises., he was succeeded by Athaulf as King of the Visigoths in 410.

Theodius II was emperor in the east and Honorius emperior in the west and despite what was happening in Rome they were arguing about their positions.

Honorius was prepared to recognize Constantine as co-emperor, but quickly changed his mind when a Spanish commander, Gerontius, declared another man, Maximus, as emperor in 411 and started attacking Constantine. At this point, Honorius dispatched to Gaul a commander named Constantius who defeated both Constantine and Gerontius.

Constantine returned to Italy to discover that the Burgundians and Alans had raised a puppet emperor Jovinus on the Rhine.

Athaulf took Galla Placida, Honorius's half sister as hostage, went to join forces with Jovinus the puppet emperor but was rebuffed and then fought against him.

In 413 Jovinus was crushed, but Burgundians were formed in their possession of Upper Germany as federates securing the first step in the alienation of Gaul from imperial control.

About the same time, Britain petitioned for help against invasions from the Picts in the norths, the Irish (or scotti) in the west, by the Jutes from Denmark, the Frisians from the low countries (Belgium and Holland) and by the Angles and Saxons from north-west Germany in the east and south -- but Honorius abandoned them.

As part of his agreement to crush Jovinus, Athaulf was to be provided with grain by the imperial government but a revolt in Africa prevented this and he revolted by seizing southern Gaul and in 414 married Galla knowing that Constantine loved her. In retaliation, Constantine cut off supplies to southern Gaul, forcing Athaulf to cross the Pyrenees into north western Spain.

Athaulf was assassinated in 415 and was succeeded by Wallia whose fleet was destroyed in an attempt to cross to Africa in 416 and was forced to make peace with Rome by returning Galla and subduing the Vandals, Suebi and Alans in Spain - in return for which Galla was given a kingdom for the Visigoths in south western Gaul.

In 416 Constantine and Galla married, having a daughter and a son, Valentinian, in 419. In 421 Honorius appointed Constantine as co-emperor but he was not recognized in the East. When Constantine died that same year, a rift developed between Galla and Honorius and she fled with her children to her nephew Theodosius II in the east in 423.

In the same year Honorius died and a mid-level administrator, John, was appointed as the new emperor. Theodosius II responded by sending an attack force, had John executed and proclaimed Valentinian (Galla's son) as emperor.

The first 12 years of Valentinian III's 30-year reign were dominated by his mother who ruled through two ambitious generals, Boniface and Aetius.

Aetius had been a supporter of John -- for this he had been forgiven but was not trusted -- and worked hard to earn respect by maintaining order in Gaul and Italy. In Gaul he raised the siege at Arles in 427 against King Theoderic (successor of Wallia in 418) and in the lower Rhine in 428 he subdued a revolt of the Salian Franks who had settled in the area during Julian's time.

Aetius' main source of power, however, was his friendship with King Rugila of the Huns -- nomadic Mongol tribes from the steppes of Central Asia, including subordinate tribes of Germans and Turks, who were an important power in southern Russia and north of the Danube.

Boniface had been appointed military commander in Africa, and when he refused a summons to return to Italy an army was sent against him which was defeated in 427. In 428 another army was sent under Goth leadership and did better, capturing Carthage and Hippo Regius.

Fearing defeat, Boniface sought help from King Gaiseric of the Vandals in southern Spain, promising to split Africa with him if he brought his troops across the Straits of Gibraltar - which he did in 429, plundering Mauretania (Algeria).

Like many other Germanic tribes, the Vandals had converted to the Arian form of Christianity under Constantius II, but unlike the other Germanic tribes the Vandals were hostile to local inhabitants and cultures, expelling landowners and persecuting Catholics.